Archived material
Some aspects of the documents in this section no longer apply, however they have been archived for reference.
Putting research into practice: learning to teach
Science from research on learning
by Janette Griffin
From the proceedings of a forum conducted by the Board of Studies NSW on 26 October 1995
Return to the Nature of the Learner Forum Table of Contents
Understanding of the ways in which young people learn science has been intensively investigated over recent years. A widely held current view is that learning is seen as conceptual change, the construction and acceptance of new ideas or the restructuring of existing ideas. This view of learning recognises that learners construct rather than absorb new ideas and that learners actively generate meaning from experience (Osborne, Bell and Gilbert, 1993). While this is the currently held view, it is by no means new. After mentioning Socrates, who taught by 'insightful questioning that helped others "reduce to order" their own still-fragmentary knowledge', Hawkins (1994, p 9) chooses Immanuel Kant as the major precursor in modern times, and John Dewey as 'profoundly constructivist'.
Learning, then, is seen as a shift from naive views of the world towards more powerful views that apply in a wider range of situations. One of the basic tenets of this view is that people do not come into any learning situation as empty vessels. They already have ideas and perhaps well-developed concepts about the issues they are confronting, even though these ideas may not match the generally understood explanation for that phenomenon. Once formed, however, these views are held tenaciously, and only when the bearer recognises for themselves that their view does not work in sufficient situations will they be prepared to change their understanding.
Recognition of this learning process has enormous impact. Some methods of teaching can enhance this process, others inhibit it. In order to move the learner towards widely recognised scientific views, their own ideas need to be challenged in such a way as to set up some willingness to consider alternatives. One method for doing this is the 'Learners' Questions Approach' (Biddulph and Osborne, 1984; Faire and Cosgrove, 1988), which has a strong basis in the progression of ideas -- facts are not seen as immutable. This approach requires the teacher to take on a facilitative rather than directive role, stimulating curiosity and challenging views (Harlen, 1985). This does not mean that the teacher leaves the student to learn on their own, and in fact requires considerable skill by the teacher, to listen and understand the student's current views, and provide appropriate challenges and scaffolding for their learning. Inclusive, facilitative, learner-centred approaches to teaching and learning are advocated and reported by many recent researchers and writers on effective teaching practices, particularly in science (Penick and Yager, 1983; Fensham, 1983, 1994; Fraser and Tobin, 1989; Waldrip and Rennie, 1992; Duschl, 1990; Claxton, 1990; Bently and Watts, 1994; Black and Lucas, 1993; Harlen, 1992).
The teacher education students in our primary and secondary programs at UTS have a wide range of previous learning experiences in science. In the primary program, the highest level in science ranges from Year 10 or less (some mature age students) to 4 units of science at the HSC. In the secondary program students' qualifications range from a bachelor's degree to PhD. It is therefore vital that we take account of the range of experience in the planning and delivery of our subjects. By using learner-centred approaches where the students have some choice in the content, the depth of study, and the method of assessment, these needs can be met. Hence, the students are experiencing learning methods that they can apply in their own teaching. Opportunity is also provided for them to experience different teaching approaches such as contract learning, problem-based learning, cooperative learning, and hence investigate their own preference in learning approaches and styles, while observing the different reactions to these styles amongst their classmates.
In several of the subjects, the students are asked to read and discuss research articles on teaching approaches and strategies. This provides opportunity for critical discussion about different approaches, and for clarification of the distinctive features of these approaches. For example, they would discuss the differences between discovery and constructivist learning approaches, and in particular the difference in the role that the teacher has in each. In the practical experience components of the course, they are able to try these various teaching and learning approaches for themselves.
The majority of our primary teacher education students are women. Women often have poor views of their own ability to learn (and teach) science, particularly the physical sciences. Looking for ways to address the needs of women, Bearling (1990) showed that features of a teacher education program which includes a supportive atmosphere, a familiar context, ability to develop investigations in directions the learners perceived as useful, sharing of explorations, and a focus on student knowledge rather than teacher knowledge led to the ability of all students to develop their own scientific understanding and hence facilitated the teaching of science. These principles are embodied in the learning models developed through all our science and technology subjects.
The staff's own ongoing learning is another important model for the students. Research and evaluation projects have been conducted on a number of our subjects and courses (Griffin, 1993; Segal & Cosgrove, 1992; Sharp et al, 1993), and our own research interests are shared with the students wherever appropriate.
In summary, the science and technology education subjects at UTS have been developed using results of research into a range of fields of learning. Emphasis is placed on understanding how children learn science in order to gain insight into the most effective approaches to teaching. Consideration is given to the way in which our teacher education students approach the learning and teaching of science, recognising different learning preferences and learning styles. The overarching principle is modelling of teaching approaches and practices that we wish our students to develop for themselves.
References
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Bearling, M, 1990, 'Toward a gender-sensitive model of science teacher education for women primary and early childhood teachers', in Research in Science Education, 20, p 21-30.
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Bentley, D & Watts, M, 1994, Primary Science and Technology, Open University Press, Buckingham.
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Biddulph, F & Osborne, R (eds), 1984, Making Sense of Our World: An Interactive Teaching Approach, SERU, Hamilton, NZ.
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Black, P, & Lucas, A, 1993, Children's Informal Ideas in Science, Routledge, London.
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Claxton, G, 1990, Teaching to Learn, Cassell, London.
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Duschl, R, 1990, Restructuring Science Education: The Importance of Theories and their Development, Teachers College Press, New York.
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Faire, J & Cosgrove, M, 1988, Teaching Primary Science, Waikato Education Centre, Hamilton, NZ.
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Fensham, P, 1983, A research base for new objectives of science teaching, in Science Education 67 (1), pp 3-12.
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Fensham, P, Gunstone, R & White, R (eds), 1994, The Content of Science: A Constructivist Approach to its Teaching and Learning, Falmer Press, London.
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Fraser, B J & Tobin, K, 1989, 'Exemplary science and mathematics teachers', in What Research Says to the Science and Mathematics Teacher, KCSS&M,
Curtin University, Perth.
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Griffin, J, 1993, 'An integrated teaching model designed to increase the quality of science learning by primary teacher education students', in Promoting Teaching in Higher Education, eds, J Bain, E Lietzow & B Ross, Griffith University, Brisbane.
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Harlen, W, 1985, Teaching and Learning Primary Science, Harper and Row, London.
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Harlen, W, 1992, The Teaching of Science, David Fulton, London.
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Hawkins, D, 1994, 'Constructivism: some history', in The Content of Science, eds P Fensham, R Gunstone & R White, Falmer Press, London.
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Osborne, R, Bell, B & Bilbert, J, 1993, 'Science teaching and children's views of the world', in European Journal of Science Education 5 (1), pp 1-14.
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Penick, J & Yager, R, 1983, 'The search for excellence in science education', in Phi Delta Kappan, May, pp 621-3.
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Segal, G & Cosgrove, M, 1992, 'Challenging student teachers' conception of primary science and technology education', in Research in Science Education,
22, pp 348-357.
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Sharp, H, Squires, D, Lockhard, A, Cresswell, R & Groundwater-Smith, S, 1993, Evaluation of Bachelor of Education Programs: Associate Teacher Program (UTS), Graduate Teaching Experience (CSU), UTS, Kuring-gai, Sydney.
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Waldrip, B & Rennie, L, 1992, 'The effective science teacher: perspectives of teachers and their principals', in South Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 20(1).